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Biomechanics & Biomaterials MCQs

Practice Set 10 of 88

This practice set contains high-yield board review questions covering key concepts in Biomechanics & Biomaterials. Each clinical scenario is designed to test your diagnostic and management skills relevant to this subspecialty.

Question 181

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

When evaluating the Joint Line Convergence Angle (JLCA) on a weight-bearing long-leg radiograph, a value of 6 degrees opening laterally indicates which of the following?

. Normal knee kinematics
. Medial compartment ligamentous laxity
. Lateral compartment ligamentous laxity or significant cartilage wear
. A fixed bony deformity of the distal femur
. A fixed bony deformity of the proximal tibia

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Lateral compartment ligamentous laxity or significant cartilage wear

Explanation

The normal JLCA is 0 to 2 degrees. An increased angle opening laterally indicates an intra-articular source of alignment change, such as lateral joint space narrowing (cartilage loss) or medial collateral ligament tightness resulting in lateral opening.

Question 182

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

A 30-year-old patient requires a subtrochanteric osteotomy for a proximal femoral deformity, and the surgeon plans to stabilize the correction with a cephalomedullary nail. Which of the following statements best describes the primary reason for preferring anatomic axis planning in this specific surgical scenario?

. Anatomic axis planning is more accurate for calculating Mechanical Axis Deviation (MAD).
. Anatomic axis planning is preferred when the contralateral limb is also deformed.
. Anatomic axis planning is primarily used for external fixator applications.
. Anatomic axis planning is preferred when utilizing intramedullary (IM) fixation devices like nails, as it aligns with the mid-diaphyseal trajectory.
. Anatomic axis planning directly identifies the Joint Line Convergence Angle (JLCA).

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Anatomic axis planning is preferred when utilizing intramedullary (IM) fixation devices like nails, as it aligns with the mid-diaphyseal trajectory.

Explanation

Correct Answer: DThe text explicitly states, 'While mechanical axis planning is the gold standard for restoring overall limb biomechanics and joint loading, anatomic axis planning is frequently preferred for the femur in specific surgical scenarios—particularly when the surgeon intends to utilize intramedullary (IM) fixation devices like nails.' The anatomic axis is defined by the mid-diaphyseal line, which represents the trajectory of an IM nail. Therefore, planning based on the anatomic axis ensures that the osteotomy correction aligns with the nail's path, facilitating accurate fixation and restoration of anatomic alignment.Option A is incorrectbecause mechanical axis planning is the gold standard for restoring overall limb biomechanics and joint loading, and thus for calculating MAD, not anatomic axis planning.Option B is incorrectbecause while anatomic planning can be done with bilateral deformities, it's not the primary reason for its preference over mechanical planning for IM nails. Both mechanical and anatomic planning have methods for bilateral deformities.Option C is incorrectbecause mechanical angles are generally preferred when planning for plates or external fixators, not anatomic angles.Option E is incorrectbecause the JLCA is an intra-articular angle and is not directly identified or calculated through anatomic axis planning; it's a separate measurement.

Question 183

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

Based on the case, a surgeon is planning a complex femoral deformity correction using the principles pioneered by Dr. Dror Paley. This method emphasizes a meticulous, geometric approach to restore normal lower extremity alignment and biomechanics.

. Primarily focusing on cosmetic limb length equality.
. Straightening the bone regardless of joint orientation.
. Restoring the mechanical axis of the limb while preserving joint parallelism.
. Achieving maximum bone union rates through aggressive fixation.
. Correcting only the most obvious angular deformity.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Restoring the mechanical axis of the limb while preserving joint parallelism.

Explanation

Correct Answer: CThe fundamental principle guiding Dr. Paley's geometric approach to limb deformity correction is the restoration of the mechanical axis of the limb, ensuring that it passes through the center of the major joints (hip, knee, ankle) while simultaneously preserving the parallelism of the joint lines. This approach aims to optimize load bearing and prevent secondary osteoarthritis. Option A is incorrect as cosmetic limb length equality is a secondary goal to functional alignment. Option B is incorrect because simply straightening the bone without considering joint orientation can lead to malalignment and joint dysfunction. Option D is a general surgical goal but not the defining principle of deformity correction. Option E is incorrect as a comprehensive approach addresses all components of the deformity, not just the most obvious.

Question 184

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

Utilizing the principles illustrated in multi-planar deformity correction

, the Taylor Spatial Frame (TSF) utilizes a specific kinematic concept to correct complex deformities simultaneously. Which of the following correctly describes this mechanism?

. Single-axis rotational hinges
. Orthogonal planar adjustments requiring sequential manual correction
. Stewart-Gough platform kinematics (six degrees of freedom)
. Direct skeletal traction without a virtual hinge
. Dynamic compression using pure axial loading

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Stewart-Gough platform kinematics (six degrees of freedom)

Explanation

Hexapod external fixators, such as the Taylor Spatial Frame, are based on the Stewart-Gough platform mechanism. This allows for simultaneous multi-planar correction in all six degrees of freedom using a virtual hinge.

Question 185

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

A 40-year-old male with a history of trauma presents with a complex tibial deformity. The surgeon is meticulously planning a corrective osteotomy using Paley's principles. Which of the following statements best encapsulates the core philosophy underlying this methodology?

. Surgical correction should prioritize cosmetic appearance over biomechanical accuracy.
. Subjective visual estimation is a reliable method for initial deformity assessment.
. Accurate measurement is a prerequisite for effective correction.
. Advanced surgical techniques can compensate for imprecise preoperative planning.
. Localized radiographs are sufficient for diagnosing and planning all lower limb deformities.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Accurate measurement is a prerequisite for effective correction.

Explanation

Correct Answer: CThe text explicitly states the core philosophy: 'The core philosophy underlying this methodology is simple yet profoundly impactful: you cannot correct what you cannot accurately measure.' It emphasizes that 'Successful deformity correction depends entirely on meticulous preoperative planning derived from strictly standardized radiographs.'Option A is incorrectbecause Paley's principles prioritize rigorous science and mathematical precision for predictable, reproducible, and successful patient outcomes, which inherently includes biomechanical accuracy, not just cosmetic appearance.Option B is incorrectbecause the text directly refutes this, stating that 'Subjective visual estimation—often referred to as "eyeballing" the deformity—is a dangerous relic of the past, replaced by objective, reproducible geometric analysis.'Option D is incorrectbecause the text warns: 'Operating on flawed measurements leads inevitably to imprecise osteotomies, residual deformity, altered joint biomechanics, and ultimately, compromised joint health and early-onset osteoarthritis,' indicating that advanced techniques cannot compensate for flawed planning.Option E is incorrectbecause the text clearly states that 'Standard, short-cassette radiographs of the hip, knee, or ankle... are entirely insufficient for deformity analysis. They provide a myopic, localized view that completely obscures the global mechanical relationship.'

Question 186

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

A resident is reviewing a full-length standing AP radiograph of a patient with a suspected knee deformity. The radiograph was taken with the patient's feet pointing forward, but the patellae are clearly internally rotated. The resident proceeds to measure the Mechanical Lateral Distal Femoral Angle (mLDFA) and the Medial Proximal Tibial Angle (MPTA) from this film. Based on Paley's principles, what is the most critical implication of using this radiograph for these measurements?

. The measurements of mLDFA and MPTA will be accurate, but the overall leg length will be distorted.
. The rotational distortion will lead to an erroneous calculation of the Mechanical Axis Deviation (MAD).
. The measurements will accurately reflect the patient's true frontal plane deformity, as long as the feet are forward.
. The distortion will primarily affect the assessment of sagittal plane alignment, not frontal plane angles.
. The radiograph is acceptable for initial screening but not for definitive surgical planning.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. The rotational distortion will lead to an erroneous calculation of the Mechanical Axis Deviation (MAD).

Explanation

Correct Answer: BThe text emphasizes that the 'Patella-Forward Rule' is critical because 'aligning the feet forward can induce significant rotation at the knee. This rotation distorts the frontal plane projection, rendering all subsequent joint orientation angle measurements completely inaccurate.' If the mLDFA and MPTA are inaccurate, then the subsequent calculation of the Mechanical Axis Deviation (MAD) will be inherently flawed. The text states: 'Operating on flawed measurements leads inevitably to imprecise osteotomies, residual deformity, altered joint biomechanics...'Option A is incorrectbecause the text explicitly states that rotational distortion renders 'all subsequent joint orientation angle measurements completely inaccurate,' meaning mLDFA and MPTA would not be accurate. Leg length is less affected by knee rotation than angular measurements.Option C is incorrectbecause the text directly refutes this, stating that 'aligning the feet forward can induce significant rotation at the knee. This rotation distorts the frontal plane projection, rendering all subsequent joint orientation angle measurements completely inaccurate.'Option D is incorrectbecause rotational errors primarily affect the frontal plane projection and measurements of joint orientation angles, not sagittal plane alignment, which is assessed on lateral views.Option E is incorrectbecause the text states that a poorly positioned image is 'not just unhelpful; it is dangerously misleading and can lead to catastrophic surgical errors,' making it unacceptable even for initial screening if accurate measurements are the goal.

Question 187

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

A 70-year-old patient presents with severe bilateral genu varum and is being considered for a high tibial osteotomy. The surgeon is reviewing the full-length standing AP radiographs. Which of the following statements accurately reflects a key principle of Paley's methodology regarding the consequences of using flawed measurements?

. Minor inaccuracies in radiographic measurements are typically compensated for by the body's natural healing processes.
. Flawed measurements primarily affect cosmetic outcomes, with minimal impact on joint biomechanics.
. Inaccurate measurements lead to imprecise osteotomies, residual deformity, altered joint biomechanics, and early-onset osteoarthritis.
. The Center of Rotation of Angulation (CORA) is unaffected by errors in joint orientation angles.
. Subjective visual estimation can often correct for small errors in objective measurements.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Inaccurate measurements lead to imprecise osteotomies, residual deformity, altered joint biomechanics, and early-onset osteoarthritis.

Explanation

Correct Answer: CThe text directly addresses the consequences of flawed measurements: 'Operating on flawed measurements leads inevitably to imprecise osteotomies, residual deformity, altered joint biomechanics, and ultimately, compromised joint health and early-onset osteoarthritis.' This highlights the severe and long-term negative impacts of inaccurate preoperative planning.Option A is incorrectbecause the text emphasizes the critical need for precision and warns against the severe consequences of flawed measurements, implying that minor inaccuracies are not simply compensated for.Option B is incorrectbecause the text explicitly mentions 'altered joint biomechanics' and 'compromised joint health and early-onset osteoarthritis' as consequences, indicating a significant impact beyond just cosmetic outcomes.Option D is incorrectbecause the text states that 'Without this rigorous foundation, the subsequent calculation of the Mechanical Axis Deviation (MAD), Joint Orientation Angles (such as the mLDFA and MPTA), and the Center of Rotation of Angulation (CORA) will be inherently flawed.' This means CORA calculation is directly dependent on accurate joint orientation angles.Option E is incorrectbecause the text explicitly states that 'Subjective visual estimation—often referred to as "eyeballing" the deformity—is a dangerous relic of the past,' and cannot correct for errors in objective measurements.

Question 188

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

An experienced orthopedic surgeon is teaching a new fellow about the fundamental objectives of deformity correction using Paley's principles, emphasizing the shift from subjective assessment to a rigorous, standardized approach.

What is the ultimate primary goal of applying Paley's systematic methodology to lower extremity deformity correction?

. To minimize surgical time and blood loss.
. To achieve cosmetic improvement of the limb.
. To restore native biomechanics and optimize joint loading through precise mathematical planning.
. To avoid the use of external fixation devices.
. To facilitate rapid bone healing post-osteotomy.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. To restore native biomechanics and optimize joint loading through precise mathematical planning.

Explanation

Correct Answer: CThe case states that Paley's method allows surgeons to 'approach the lower limb as an engineering marvel, applying mathematical precision to restore native biomechanics.' The ultimate goal is not just to straighten a limb visually, but to ensure the load-bearing axis passes correctly through the knee, thereby optimizing joint loading, preventing premature osteoarthritis, and restoring the limb's natural function. While other options might be secondary benefits or considerations, restoring native biomechanics through precise planning is the overarching primary goal highlighted in the text.

Question 189

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials
During total hip arthroplasty, what characteristic of irradiated (10 Mrad) and subsequently melted highly cross-linked polyethylene should provide a more wear-resistant construct than traditional gamma-irradiated (2.5-4 Mrad)-in-air polyethylene mated with the same head?
. Resistance to adhesive wear
. Resistance to abrasive wear
. Resistance to fatigue wear
. Resistance to creep

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Resistance to adhesive wear

Explanation

DISCUSSION: Highly cross-linked polyethylene makes material resistant to adhesive wear. Abrasive wear from third bodies does not decrease wear. The fatigue strength of such material is inferior to that of traditional polyethylene, and its resistance to creep is the same, if not lower, than that of traditional polyethylene.

Question 190

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials
Cortical bone demonstrates viscoelastic behavior as its mechanical properties are sensitive to strain rate and duration of applied load. Regarding longitudinal strain in cortical bone, which of the following statements regarding this characteristic is true?
. As strain rate increases, both elastic modulus and ultimate strength increase
. As strain rate increases, elastic modulus remains unchanged but ultimate strength increases
. As strain rate increases, elastic modulus increases but ultimate strength decreases
. As strain rate increases, both elastic modulus and ultimate strength decrease
. As strain rate increases, elastic modulus increases but ultimate strength remains unchanged

Correct Answer & Explanation

. As strain rate increases, both elastic modulus and ultimate strength increase

Explanation

As strain rate increases, both elastic modulus and ultimate strength increase. For LOW strain rates typical of normal activity (physiological strain rates of <0.1/s), bone is ELASTIC and DUCTILE (increasing ultimate strain with increasing strain rate). There is a ductile-to-brittle transition with increasing strain rate from normal to supranormal rates. For EXTREMELY HIGH supranormal strain rates (>0.1/s, high impact trauma), bone is VISCOELASTIC and BRITTLE (low ultimate strain with increasing strain rate). Bone also becomes stronger and stiffer (higher modulus, steeper slope of stress-strain plot) as strain rate increases. This viscoelastic property helps in damping muscle contracture. Natali and Meroi reviewed studies examining mechanical properties of bone. Mechanical properties are correlated with moisture, deformation rate, density and region of bone. Mechanical adaptation of bone is affected by strain rate (rate at which bone is deformed), strain mode (tension, compression, shear), strain direction (direction of strain relative to bone surface), strain frequency (cycles/second), stimulus duration (period over which deformation cycles are applied), strain distribution (pattern of strain magnitude across bone section) and strain energy (energy stored during deformation).

Question 191

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

In the process of manufacturing highly cross-linked polyethylene (HXLPE) for total joint arthroplasty, the material is irradiated to create cross-links. Following irradiation, the polyethylene undergoes a thermal treatment known as 'remelting' (heating above the melting point of 135°C). What is the primary mechanical or chemical trade-off of the remelting process compared to 'annealing' (heating below the melting point)?

. Remelting eliminates all residual free radicals but decreases fatigue strength and fracture toughness
. Remelting preserves residual free radicals but significantly increases yield strength
. Remelting increases the crystallinity of the polyethylene, making it highly resistant to crack propagation
. Remelting prevents oxidation but severely increases the adhesive wear rate
. Remelting has no effect on free radicals but increases the melting point of the material

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Remelting eliminates all residual free radicals but decreases fatigue strength and fracture toughness

Explanation

Irradiation of polyethylene generates free radicals that cause long-term oxidative degradation. Remelting (heating above the melting point) effectively extinguishes all free radicals, yielding excellent oxidation resistance. However, it decreases the crystallinity of the polymer, which reduces its yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and fatigue crack propagation resistance. Annealing (below melting point) preserves crystallinity and mechanical strength but leaves some free radicals, risking future oxidation.

Question 192

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

During deep flexion of a healthy, native human knee, distinct kinematic patterns are observed between the medial and lateral compartments. Which of the following best describes the normal kinematics of the femorotibial joint as the knee moves from extension into deep flexion?

. Symmetrical posterior rollback of both the medial and lateral femoral condyles
. Anterior translation of the lateral femoral condyle with external rotation of the tibia
. Minimal AP translation of the medial femoral condyle with significant posterior rollback of the lateral femoral condyle, resulting in internal tibial rotation
. Posterior translation of the medial femoral condyle while the lateral condyle acts as a fixed pivot, resulting in external tibial rotation
. Symmetrical anterior sliding of the femoral condyles to prevent impingement

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Minimal AP translation of the medial femoral condyle with significant posterior rollback of the lateral femoral condyle, resulting in internal tibial rotation

Explanation

In the native knee during flexion, the medial femoral condyle moves very little in the anteroposterior plane (often termed a 'medial pivot'), while the lateral femoral condyle undergoes significant posterior translation (rollback). Because the lateral side rolls back much more than the medial side, this relative movement causes the tibia to internally rotate relative to the femur during flexion.

Question 193

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials
A 28-year-old man has left knee pain after a snow skiing accident. The MRI scan shown in Figure 47 reveals which of the following?
. Osteosarcoma
. Bucket-handle medial meniscal tear
. Lateral collateral ligament tear
. Bone bruise
. Tibial spine avulsion

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Bone bruise

Explanation

DISCUSSION: Bone bruises are often noted on MRI after anterior cruciate and medial collateral ligament injuries. The significance of these injuries awaits long-term follow-up studies. The areas of increased signal on T2-weighted images represent areas of acute hemorrhage and are secondary to microfractures of the adjacent medullary trabeculae.

Question 194

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

A concern when choosing irradiated (10 Mrad) and subsequently melted highly cross-linked polyethylene rather than lower dose–irradiated (4 Mrad) polyethylene is related to its inferior resistance to

. adhesive wear.
. abrasive wear.
. fatigue wear.
. creep.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. fatigue wear.

Explanation

DISCUSSIONThe higher the dose of radiation to the polyethylene, the higher the amount of cross-linking. Adhesive and abrasive wear resistance increases with an increase in cross-linking. However, fatigue properties of the material are decreased when polyethylene is melted (to remove free radicals) during the cross-linking process. Creep (deformation without wear) is also slightly increased with cross-linking of polyethylene.

Question 195

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials
A patient with a cobalt-chromium alloy (Co-Cr) femoral stem has a periprosthetic fracture that is to be fixed with a cable-plate device. The surgeon should make sure that the plate, screws, and cable, respectively, are made of
. Co-Cr, stainless steel, stainless steel.
. stainless steel, stainless steel, Co-Cr.
. stainless steel, Co-Cr, Co-Cr.
. titanium alloy, titanium alloy, titanium alloy.
. titanium alloy, stainless steel, Co-Cr.

Correct Answer & Explanation

. titanium alloy, titanium alloy, titanium alloy.

Explanation

DISCUSSION: Contact between metals in a biologic environment leads to galvanic corrosion. Reduction potentials of Co-Cr and stainless steel produce the worst combination of metals in commonly used implants. Because the fixation implants are not intended to contact the existing implant, it is not as great a consideration as the plate and the screws and cables that will directly contact each other.

Question 196

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials
Which of the following properties apply to the human meniscus when compared with articular cartilage?
. Less elastic and less permeable
. Less elastic and more permeable
. Of the same elasticity and permeability
. More elastic and more permeable
. More elastic and less permeable

Correct Answer & Explanation

. More elastic and less permeable

Explanation

DISCUSSION: The meniscal cartilage, like articular cartilage, possesses viscoelastic properties. The extracellular matrix is a biphasic structure composed of a solid phase (collagen, proteoglycan) that acts as a fiber-reinforced porous-permeable composite, and a fluid phase that may be forced through the solid matrix by a hydraulic pressure gradient. Although these properties are shared with articular cartilage, the meniscus is more elastic and less permeable than articular cartilage. REFERENCES: Beaty JH (ed): Orthopaedic Knowledge Update 6. Rosemont, IL, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 1999, pp 3-23. Arendt EA (ed): Orthopaedic Knowledge Update: Sports Medicine 2. Rosemont, IL, AAOS, 1999, pp 349-354.

Question 197

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials
What property of titanium alloys accounts for their high corrosion resistance in vivo?
. Self-passivation
. Ductility
. Hardness
. Modulus of elasticity
. Conductivity

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Self-passivation

Explanation

In both room temperature air and physiologic fluids, titanium alloys self-passivate or spontaneously form a layer of titanium oxide very rapidly. This layer makes titanium alloys resistant to surface breakdown.

Question 198

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

A surgeon desires to use an implant that will be able to absorb as much energy as possible before it fails. The implant should be made of a material that has which of the following properties?

. A high modulus of elasticity
. A low modulus of elasticity
. High intrinsic toughness
. A high yield stress
. Brittleness

Correct Answer & Explanation

. A high modulus of elasticity

Explanation

High intrinsic toughness is defined as the amount of energy per volume a material can absorb without breaking. A high modulus of elasticity and a low modulus of elasticity are incorrect because the modulus of elasticity refers to the stiffness of the material. A brittle material absorbs little energy before breaking. High yield stress is incorrect because it is only one of several factors that lead to a high toughness. While the yield stress is the point at which plastic deformation begins, if coupled with a brittle material, the energy absorbed would be low relative to a ductile material.

Question 199

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

What is the correct order of the elastic modulus of the following materials from greatest to least?

. Stainless steel, cobalt-chromium, titanium, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), alumina ceramic.
. Cobalt-chromium, stainless steel, titanium, alumina ceramic, PMMA
. Alumina ceramic, titanium, cobalt-chromium, stainless steel, PMMA
. Alumina ceramic, cobalt-chromium, stainless steel, titanium, PMMA
. Titanium, cobalt-chromium, alumina ceramic, stainless steel, PMMA

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Stainless steel, cobalt-chromium, titanium, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), alumina ceramic.

Explanation

DISCUSSION: In Young’s modulus of elasticity, E is a measure of the stiffness of a material and its ability to resist deformation.  In the elastic region of the stress-stain curve, E = stress/strain.  The moduli of elasticity for these materials are alumina ceramic = 380 Gigapascals (GPa), cobalt-chromium = 210 GPa, stainless steel = 190 GPa, titanium = 116 GPa, and PMMA = 1.1 to 4.1 GPa.REFERENCES: Buckwalter JA, Einhorn TA, Simon SR (eds): Orthopaedic Basic Science, ed 2. Rosemont, IL, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 2000, pp 182-215.Brinker MR: Basic science section 8: Biomechanics and biomaterials, in Miller MD (ed): Review of Orthopaedics, ed 3. Philadelphia, PA, WB Saunders, 2000, pp 120-123.

Question 200

Topic: Biomechanics & Biomaterials

Which of the following materials best approximates the Young's modulus of elasticity of cortical bone?

. Titanium
. Cobalt-chrome alloy
. Alumina
. Zirconia
. Stainless steel

Correct Answer & Explanation

. Titanium

Explanation

Of the materials listed titanium (100GPa) has an elastic modulus closest to cortical bone (approximately 18GPa) as well as cancellous bone (approximately 2GPa).Titanium is a material that is light, highly ductile, strong and corrosion resistant. However, titanium has poor wear resistance and is notch sensitive. It is commonly used as an orthopaedic implant materials because it has torsional and axial stiffness (moduli) that most closely mimics bone. Young’s modulus is constant and different for each material and represents the material's ability to maintain shape under external loading.Rho et al found that the average Young's modulus for trabecular bone measured ultrasonically and mechanically was 14.8 GPa (S.D. 1.4) and 10.4 (S.D. 3.5), respectively. The average Young's modulus of microspecimens of cortical bone measured ultrasonically and mechanically was 20.7 GPa (S.D. 1.9) and 18.6 GPa (S.D. 3.5), respectively.Illustration A depicts a stress vs. strain curve. The slope of the line in the elastic zone represents the Young Modulus of Elasticity.Incorrect Answers:

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